Chapter 45 & 47

Connection:

a. carrying capacity and biotic potential: The biotic potential is the maximum rate that a population can grow under ideal conditions. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals an environment can contain. These work together because the biotic potential may have to yield to the carrying capacity and therefore the environment must be able to sustain the whole population or many will die.

b. biological magnification and trophic level: The trophic level is all organisms having the same number of transfer steps away from the energy input into an ecosystem while the biological magnification is the increasing concentration of a slowly degradable or non degradable substance in body tissues as it is passing along in the food chains. Both processes deal with energy being inputted into a larger system. In addition each species is put on a trophic level as a smaller organism is eaten by a bigger one and the process continues, this can lead to a biological magnification.

c. Detrivores and autotrophs: Detrivores are animals that feed on decomposing matter or organisms and an autotroph is an organism that synthesizes its own food from simple inorganic compounds in its environment with energy from the sun. These two are similar for instead of feeding off of living organisms, they find their food through what the ecosystem provides for them, autotrophs being the sun and detrivores feeding off organism that are already decomposed.

A)

45.4: limits on the Growth of Populations

1) Density-Dependent Limiting Factors

a) Many times the environmental factors keep a certain population of species from growing to its biotic potential

b) When resources of a specie or organism is lower in numbers, this supply is called the limiting factor

          - This can be extrensively detrimental to a population and one factor can affect the whole population

2) Carrying Capacity and Logistic Growth

     a) In the end, it is the sustainable supply of resources that will determine population   size

     b) the carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals of a population given   the sustainable supply

     c) The pattern of logistic growth is used to show how the carrying capacity can affect           a population size

     d) When exponential or logistic growth are overcrowded, factors function as density-  dependent controls putting an individual’s survival over the population.

3) Density-Independent Limiting Factors

     a) Density-independent factos cause more deaths and fewer birth rates

B)

Survivorship curve: a graph line that emerges when ecologists plot a cohort’s age-specific survival habit.

Type I: Type I These curves are used to indicate population and it curves when there is a drop of survival during their lifetime.

Ex. The population of people in America who have easy access to health insurance as opposed to some of the starving children in Africa then the curve would drop because of the population, if the whole world is taken into consideration, will drop.

Type II: This curve reflects the death rate of all ages this includes all organisms.

Ex. The death of snowy egrets is very constant.

Type III: This curve is used to describe organisms with high death rate at an early stage in life.

Ex. Sea star larvae die at a very early age.

C)

a. Negative Growth: A negative growth population has a small amount of individuals in its pre-productive time with a higher amount when it is productive and after the productive stage is when the largest number of individuals can exist.

b. No Growth: A population with no growth steadily declines but as it gets older, it would have a smaller population.

c. Rapid Growth: A population with rapid growth has a dramatic increase in its population as the years go on.

d. Slow Growth: A population with slow growth is when the growth of a population decreases at a consistent rate.

D) The nitrogen cycle is when gaseous nitrogen is changed into ammonia (N2 à NH3). This occurs when the ammonia created by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil and nitrogen fixation happen. Then the organisms use the two forms, nitrate and ammonium to live. Then as organisms pass on, they decompose and nitrogen enters back into the soil. And in the soil, the nitrogen is absorbed and nitrate is converted to gaseous nitrogen again. 

Ecosystem: Chap 46 & 49

Connections: 

a. Commensalism is when one organism is benefited directly while the other organism involved in the interaction is benefited little or not at all. Coevolution is when two species have such similar behaviors that one is pressure to change over generations. Therefore commensalism and coevolution are similar in that if during coevolution, one species is pressure to alter their diet from going to the food they prefer to the food that will still allow them to live properly because the other specie needs it more or is stronger, commensalism can occur because the specie that must alter its diet is effected little for it still survives, yet the other species is benefited because not it has the food source to itself.

b. Aposematic coloration is the term used to define the markings of an animal to warn off predators and mimcry is the case in which one species closely resembles the other in form of behavior or both. Both mimcry and aposematic coloration are forms in which an organism or specie can use as a defensive method to protect itself from predators.

c. Altruism is the social behavior that decreases the organism’s chance of reproduction but improving the chances for the other species. Allele is a pair of alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same spot on the chromosome and control the same character. Allels can lead to an organism having an altruism because some alleles are more dominant than others and therefore if an altruism occurs in an organism’s reproduction, the dominant will overtake the inferior allele.

d. A species is a group that can interbreed between the members inside the group and the population is the group of organisms of the same species that are in one given area. The niche is the sums total of all activities and relationships in which species use the resources in order to survive. Therefore these are all part of the ecosystem and environment of organisms.

Essentials:

1, Commensalism: An example of commensalism is a tree and a human. The reason that this relationship can be defined as commensalism is because on a hot day, the tree provides the human shade however the human does the benefit the tree at all by using the tree as shade.

2. Mutualism: Lichen, an organism that is half plant and half fungus, is the prime example for mutualism. The reason for this is because for the half that is fungus, it gets the food from the plant, and the fungus absorbs water for the plant to proceed photosynthesis and for protection from U.V. rays, therefore both the fungus and plant are mutually benefitted.

3. Parasitism: Bacteria and humans is an example of parasitism. Parasitism is the relationship between organisms in which one organism is benefited while the other one is harmed, therefore bacteria’s harm humans, causing their immune system to weaken or collapse while they are being fed and benefited because they are in the human body.

4. Resource partitioning: Resource partitioning is when niches of two species overlap. One specie will then move or alter its ways in order to minimize competition, and an example of this is two warblers who eat the same food, one warbler, with slightly different traits, will allow them to move to another tree, therefore reducing competition.

 5. Predator-Prey coevolution: The relationship between the Canis Lupus feeding on the caribou in Alaska is an example of predator-prey coeveolution because the wolf is more selective in that they limit the numbers of prey according to the population density of caribous, therefore allowing the caribous to become harder to hunt.

6. Camouflage: An example of camouflage is a flounder blending in with the gravel of the sea of the floor in order to hide from its predator because it is smaller. Therefore instead of running, the flounder can be mistaken for just being part of the sea ground.

7. Mimcry: A prime example is a yellowjacket and the other insects that mimic it such as beetles and flies of strikingly similar appearance for their yellow bodies and black strips, a yellowjacket can mistake it for itself and not eat the insects while they are edible mimics.

8. Aposematic Coloration: The bright color (red) of the Granular Poison frog is a warning to the predators that the frog is poisonous and deadly taste.

9. Pioneer Species: A pioneer species is the specie that is first to establish itself in an area where nothing is growing, and an example of this is the centaurea maculosa which was the first to blossom in the eastern Europe.

10. Keystone Species: A keystone specie is a specie that influences community structure (environment) that is disproportionate. An example of this is the relationship between the otters and kelp. If otters were to stop existing, there would be an overpopulation of kelp and it would affect the whole ecosystem.

11. Instinctive behavior: An example of instinctive behavior is a cuckoo bird who’s parent laid their egg in a nest that is not theres, yet the other bird is still willing to take care of the cuckoo bird and even responds to its call for hunger.

12. Imprinting: An example of imprinting behavior is the imprinting of baby geese to follow their mother, therefore if an individual with mother qualities, they will begin to follow the instructor that imitates qualities of a mother geese.

13. Altruism: Altruism is somewhat like an act of sacrifice for it decreases the individual’s chance of reproductive success while improving the chances for others. An example of altruism is dolphins because when they see an animal that is injured, they swim underneath them for hours pushing the organism to the top so that they can breathe.

14. Chemical communication: An example of chemical communication is the communication produced by female silk months for they produce bombykol molecules which have the ability to attract males very far away.

15. Tactile communication: An example of tactile communication is seen in the communication of honeybees for they use a certain “dance” method to communicate other bees when they are in their hive, producing food.

16. Courtship rituals/display: A common courtship ritual that male hangingly’s display is that when trying to find a female partner, they might dangle a month, or any appealing gift for females are attracted to males who may have the largest gift to offer them.